Interview with Sharon Plumb from TNC

Sharon Plumb was kind enough to take time out of her busy day to talk to me about the invasive species of Vermont and the work that she and the rest of the folks at TNC are doing about them. There seemed to be three pillars to the work she does as the Invasive Species Coordinator with the Vermont Chapter of The Nature Conservancy; policy, outreach and education, and eradication. During our conversation she focused on the outreach side of things.

When she initially began working for TNC their outreach was directed towards gardeners and the general public. However more recently Forester outreach has also been thrown into the mix.  Within the realm of forestry professionals there are three types of foresters who offer services to woodland owners: procurement foresters, public service foresters, and consulting foresters.  All of these types of professionals, if educated on invasive species, can help to further the movement by providing information to the landowners that they work with.

Ms. Plumb mentioned the recently created Best Management Practices that by law are required to be used and incorporated into any forest management plan that is enrolled under the Current Use Program. Foresters therefore must be aware of these BMPs and of invasive species themselves. 

IMapInvasives is another tool that Ms. Plumb brought up during our chat. This database is used for prevention and management that has been useful as far as tracking and mapping the spread of invasives goes. This program has only been around in Vermont for 8 or 9 months but it is already making waves. The free, web based database is available to anyone with internet access and is simply and easy to learn. A 45 minute training program is offered on IMapInvasives that will make you truly an expert and the trainings are always well attended by land managers and the members of the general public alike.  Another good thing about the database is that New York and New Hampshire are using the same program. This allows for some cross border work to take place and hopefully this collaboration will help to strengthen our defense against these pests.  

In addition to workshops being held on IMapInvasives, The Conservancy and a myriad of other organization host dozens of different workshops every year. Their next training is to take place on May 29^th.

When asked what her greatest concern regarding the invasives in the northeast Ms. Plumb responded that she was most concerned for the future health of our forests. Invasive terrestrial plants have taken over many areas of Vermont so that no native plants or trees are growing in the understory whatsoever. In other places native vegetation and regrowth can be seen in the understory; however the growth rates are often set back more than ten years.

We thought that it was important to learn from Sharon Plumb what we could do to help the effort. She expressed that in her mind there is not enough political attention of resource allocation to these issues. Plumb suggested that students such as ourselves should urge our senators and other representations to appropriate money to help hire additional staff people to do this type of work, there just isn’t enough. A letter writing campaign was discussed as a means for getting this point across to the policy makers. Additionally we can take part in educating others or take part in removal projects.

Sharon suggested that those interested in learning more could visit their newly launched website which so far has been a huge success in reaching more people and creating a much needed buzz around the issue of invasive species.

http://www.vtinvasives.org/

http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/vermont/volunteer/wise-on-weeds.xml

Sabrina Smits 

Map

By Meagan Murray

Since you have excess honeysuckle, why not put it to good use?

photo from http://bugarden2.wordpress.com/2011/07/04/on-honeysuckle-and-such/

Honeysuckle Infused Vodka 

1.) Collect honeysuckle flowers, wait until flowers are yellow for best taste and make sure to remove any green leaves or stems from your collection.

2.) Fill and tightly pack your collected honeysuckle flowers into a mason jar  

3.) Select your desired vodka and fill your mason jar. Seal the lid of the jar and let your infusion sit for two days.

3.) After the two days are up, separate the vodka and flowers. To transfer the infused vodka and strain out the flowers, use cheesecloth and pour your honeysuckle vodka into another jar.

4.) Next, refrigerate the vodka. (the honeysuckle smell will probably last a month before the floral smell starts to fade)

5.) Mix 2 to 3 ounces of infused vodka over ice and add tonic, juice, or seltzer!

6.) Enjoy your invasive plant concoction!

original recipe was found here: Diggin' Eats!

Norah Carlos

Shrubby Honeysuckle

This species of honey suckle differs from Japanese honeysuckle as it originates in Europe and parts of Asia and is comprised of a three subspecies.

 Morrow honeysuckle:

·       downy leaves and white flowers that turn pale yellow as they age

Tatarian honeysuckle:

·      smooth, hairless leaves with pink, red or white flowers that do not turn yellow with age.

Belle honeysuckle:

·       hybrid between Tatarian and Morrow honeysuckles and is an intermediate between the two

Morrow honeysuckle on the right, Belle honeysuckle in the middle, Tartarian honeysuckle on the left

 photo received from http://www.tneppc.org/invasive_plants/37

These species are also generally described as:

o   upright, coarse, deciduous shrugs that range from a few feet to up to 16 feet in height.

o   opposite simple leaves are oval and oblong

o   tubular flowers are numerous and occur in pairs on slender stalks

o   fruit is many seeded, red, orange, or yellow

All the above species are common in Vermont, specifically within the Champlain lowlands and are quickly spreading up the Connecticut Valley.  Shrubby honeysuckle thrive in abandoned fields, pastures, hedge rows, edges of forest and wetlands, but also in forests.  They prefer limey soils but are tolerant of varying soil moisture levels, making their adaptation easy.  They can survive in moderate shade but prefer open areas and achieve greatest fruit production when fully exposed to sunlight.

As recently as the 1980’s, shrubby honeysuckle was promoted for their ornamental use, but also for their positive effects on soil stabilization and wildlife values. It has now been made evident, however, that these varieties of honeysuckle are invaders that become a common component of the site or natural community in which it invades.  Shrubby honeysuckle forms a dense shrub layer that interferes with the life cycles of many native wood and herbaceous plants, including rare and endangered species.  These plants can also alter habitats by decreasing light availability. 

What can you do to control shrubby honeysuckle?
(check out the Missouri Department of Conservation's guide to controlling these invasive plants)

Control is difficult because birds eat the seeds and further disperse them across various terrains.  So far, the best means of erdication prescribed by the Departments of Environmental Conservation,  Forest Parks and Recreation, of the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, and The Nature Conservancy of Vermont are herbicides.  Alternatives to herbicides are cuttings, which should be done in early spring and in late summer or early fall due to the fact that mature plants will re-sprout but may reduce seed sources.  This cutting process must be repeated for 3-5 years to inhibit new shoots and totally eradicate target plants.

Norah Carlos.

Missouri Department of Conservation. "Invasive Honeysuckle Control." 2007.

http://mdc4.mdc.mo.gov/Documents/15700.pdf

Nuzzo, Victoria. 1997. Element Stewardship Abstract for Japanese Honeysuckle.  The Nature Conservancy. http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu/esadocs/documnts/lonijap.rtf

“Vermont Invasive Exotic Plant Fact Sheet Series”

Departments of Environmental Conservation, and Fish and Wildlife, and Forest Parks and Recreation, of the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, and The Nature Conservancy of Vermont Spring 1998 Revised Winter 2003

Purple Loosestrife

Purple Loosestrife

(Wilson)

Purple Loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) is a plant species native to Europe, Asia, Northwestern Africa, and Southeastern Australia. It made its way over to the United States in the 1800s and has been plaguing Vermont for many years. It grows very rapidly, reaching heights of 1-1.5 meters, forming vast colonies. Each root can produce 30-50 stems which create a web that chokes out competitors. It was brought over here as a medicinal herb for treating diarrhea and dysentery. Its bright purple flower also attracted people to use it as an ornamental. Unfortunately it spread like wildfire, mainly in wetland areas. It is distributed by wind and water, disrupting the water flow of rivers. It crowds out cattails as well as disrupts the life cycles of waterfowl, amphibians, and algae.

The devastating impact that purple loosestrife can have on an area

(courtesy of spinner.cofc.org)

A single plant can release nearly 3 million seeds per year; so one can see how it would be impossible to eradicate this species entirely. Fortunately researchers have discovered a way to biologically control purple loosestrife. There are five known beetles that feed naturally on the plant, including two leaf beetles and three weevils.

  

Over the summer I had the pleasure of meeting a woman by the name of Lisa Tewksbury, who works in the BioControl Lab at the University of Rhode Island. She has worked for years raising Galerucella spp., a beetle that feeds almost solely on purple loosestrife. She begins with a variety of beetles, testing which one feeds the most effectively on the invasive and then raises them by the thousands and releases them into the wild, taking note of their progress in predetermined plots. So far her efforts have been wildly effective, eradicating purple loosestrife almost entirely from the wetlands at the Roger Williams Park Zoo.

In an article by the Michigan Sea Grant, Beetles Take a Bite out of Purple Loosestrife; Native Plants Recover in Some Michigan Wetlands, Gallerucella spp. was responsible for the 100% decline of purple loosestrife in three wetlands. These beetles were released, established populations, and eradicated purple loosestrife from these areas. This study also showed that in the absence of purple loosestrife, native plants were able to recolonize in the wetlands.With people like Lisa Tewskbury and beetles like Galerucella spp. perhaps there is hope on the invasive eradication front.

Bibliography

1. Hamel, Kathy. Non-native Invasive Freshwater Plants. http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/plants/weeds/aqua009.html
2. "Lythrum Salicaria." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 25 Mar. 2012. Web. 29 Mar. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lythrum_salicaria>.
3. Tewksbury, Lisa et al. 1996-2004. Reestablishment of Native Plants in Roger Williams Park Zoo Wetland, after Biological Control of Purple Loosestrife, Lythrum salicaria.
4. "Michigan Sea Grant News: Beetles Take a Bite out of Purple Loosestrife; Native Plants Recover in some Michigan Wetlands." Michigan Sea Grant: Enhancing the Sustainability of Michigan’s Coastal Communities, Residents, and Businesses through Research, Outreach and Education. 28 May 2003. Web. 15 Apr. 2012.

Ring-necked Pheasant

Ring-Necked Pheasant

(Tom Grey)

The Ring-necked Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) is unfortunately one of American’s favorite non-native species. It originates from Asia but was purposely introduced to the United States in 1857. Is it in fact so beloved that South Dakota made it its state bird. It thrives on agricultural lands, feeding off of cultivated grains and corn. This makes Vermont a perfect place for the species to survive. They were introduced into the Champlain lowlands in 1892. Their range today in Vermont is the lowlands, green mountains, eastern foothills, north central, east central, northeast highlands, and Taconic Mountains.

The case of the ring-necked pheasant is special though. While it is a non-native species it is not considered to be an invasive species. The ring-necked pheasant is widely bred in captivity and released for hunting purposes. It brings in a large amount of revenue for states that keep it stocked. It is, however, considered a pest because of its booming numbers due to releases by breeders and wild population breeding. In Vermont, legislation has ruled out the release of ring-necks by wildlife agencies, yet they are still released by private landowners.

Below I have added a popular recipe utilizing the ring-necked pheasant:

• Two whole pheasants
• 2-1/2 cups Sauvignon Blanc wine, divided
• 4 chopped shallots
• 6 crushed juniper berries
• 6 black peppercorns
• 6 bay leaves
• 1½ tsp. salt
• 8 sprigs fresh thyme
• 1½ cup Sauvignon Blanc wine
• 1½ tsp. salt
• 1½ tsp. black pepper
• 2 cups Chardonnay wine
• 1½ Tbsp. chopped shallots
• 1 Tbsp. chopped garlic
• 3 bay leaves
• 1½ cups heavy cream
• 1 Tbsp. mustard
• 1 Tbsp. chicken or game glace (optional)
• 1 tsp. chopped fresh sage
• ½ tsp. salt
• ½ tsp. ground black pepper
• ½ stick butter, cut into chunks
• ½ lb wild mushrooms, sauteed
• ¼ stick butter

 

Method:

Comment from the chef: "We use farm raised ring-necked pheasants. Ring necks have a distinctive taste and better texture than commercially raised pheasants. The breast meat of game birds is very lean and cannot stand overcooking. Since the legs can be tough we slow bake them until fork tender."

To make the breasts: Wash and pat dry the pheasants. To cut the pheasant into pieces remove the wishbone and slice down along the line of the breastbone to remove the two breasts. Then cut off the legs and make a ¼ in. slice along the inner joint of the thigh and drumstick. Reserve the carcass and wings for a future stock. Heat a 12 in. pan over medium heat. Add 1/2 stick butter then breasts and sear turning to brown both sides. Cook breasts to medium rare repeating once again that game bird breasts are very lean and cannot be overcooked. When serving slice the breast meat thinly at an angle.

To make the marinade: in a bowl mix together 1 cup Saugivnon Blanc wine 4 chopped shallots 6 crushed juniper berries 6 black peppercorns 6 bay leaves 1-1/2 tsp. salt. Marinate the pheasant pieces for 8 hours or overnight covered in the refrigerator. Turn the pheasant several times during marinating.

To slow bake the legs: preheat oven to 300 F. Transfer the legs to a roasting pan and mix together 8 sprigs fresh thyme 1-1/2 cups Sauvignon Blanc wine 1-1/2 tsp. salt 1-1/2 tsp. black pepper. Cover pan tightly with foil and place in the oven. Begin testing for tenderness in 1 hr. When fork-tender remove from the oven.

To make the sauce: in a non-reactive or stainless steel saucepan on medium heat reduce 2 cups of Chardonnay wine with 1-1/2 Tbsp. chopped shallots garlic and bay leaves to 1/2 c. Strain and reserve the liquid. In a separate non-reactive or stainless steel saucepan on medium heat reduce the heavy cream to ½ c. In a bowl combine the wine and cream reductions and add the mustard glace sage salt and pepper. When ready to serve warm sauce over medium heat and slowly whisk in the cut-up butter one chunk at a time until melted. Add mushrooms to sauce.

Place one pheasant leg on each plate along with one sliced breast. Spoon warm sauce over pheasants.

Bibliography

"Common Pheasant." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 25 Mar. 2012. Web. 29 Mar. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Pheasant>.

Sohl, Terry L. "Ring-necked Pheasant." South Dakota Birds and Birding. Web. 29 Mar. 2012. <http://sdakotabirds.com/species/ring_necked_pheasant_info.htm>.

Parks, Greg. "Ring Necked Pheasant, Sauteed Breast and Slow Baked Legs with Sauvignon Blanc, Wild Mushrooms and Sage." On the Menu. Web. 03 Apr. 2012. <http://www.wgby.org/localprograms/onthemenu/recipes/recipe_detail.cfm?recipe_id=127>.

Japanese Honeysuckle: Lonicera japonica

Japanese honeysuckle is a woody perennial or twining vine that can grow up to 30 ft long.  The leaves of the Japanese honeysuckle are simple, oblong, opposite, but sometimes lobed.  The flowers are fragrant and are between 1-2 inches, blooming in late May through the summer.  Each flower is two lipped and a white to yellow color depending on age. The fruit of the Japanese honeysuckle is purple-black and a pulpy berry.

 Japanese Honeysuckle

photo from: http://reddirtramblings.com/roses/garden-bloggers-bloom-day-may-15-2010

Japanese honeysuckle’s habitat ranges from thickets, borders of woods and roadsides where it meadows.  It is also found where human disturbances have provided a gap in canopy and allow for rapid growth with sun exposure.  Throughout the United States, Japanese Honeysuckle has been found in the following states; Maine, NY, Mass, south to Texas and Florida, west to Missouri and Indiana

Click here for a map of the Japanese honeysuckle's distribution

 Japanese Honeysuckle berries

photo from:http://www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/weedguide/singlerecord.asp?id=830

Due to the plant’s wide seed dispersal it spreads rapidly and outcompetes native vegetation.  The honeysuckle also has rapid growth rate, extended growing season, ability to capture resources both above and below-ground, as well as a wide range of habitat adaptability. Once established the vine of the honeysuckle can engulf small trees and can also grow during the winter when other native species are dormant.

Japanese honeysuckles was introduced from Japan in 1800s as an ornamental shrub and vine and has been used to control soil erosion along railroads and highways.

Volunteers help remove invasive honeysuckle in Virginia 

photo from:http://www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/weedguide/singlerecord.asp?id=830

How to control this invasive plant?

*Mowing and grazing does not get rid of the honeysuckle, it resprouts!

·      Small portions can be pulled by hand, shovel, or hoe and removing the trailing vines, but soil disturbance should be avoided to minimize seed germination!

·      Cut material can sprout roots so should be removed from site! 

·      Unfortunately, the most effective means of eradicating Japanese honeysuckle has found to be roundup.

·      Roundup is a non-selective killer and does not kill the Japanese honeysuckle roots, but it has been the best at reducing new stalks and roots.

·      A combination of fire and herbicides has also proven effective.

Norah Carlos

USDA. "Species Profile: Japanese Honeysuckle." 2011.

http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/plants/honeysuckle.shtml

Nuzzo, Victoria. 1997. Element Stewardship Abstract for Japanese Honeysuckle.  The Nature Conservancy. http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu/esadocs/documnts/lonijap.rtf

“Vermont Invasive Exotic Plant Fact Sheet Series”

Departments of Environmental Conservation, and Fish and Wildlife, and Forest Parks and Recreation, of the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, and The Nature Conservancy of Vermont Spring 1998 Revised Winter 2003

AleWives: Alosa pseudoharengus

photo from VT DEC: http://www.vtwaterquality.org/lakes/htm/ans/lp_alewife.htm

    A member of the Herring or “shad” family, the alewife is native to the Atlantic Ocean but migrates and spawns in freshwater rivers and lakes.  Through its spawning habitat, alewives have been able to adapt to freshwater and have done so in the Great Lakes causing many ecological disturbances.

How to Identify Alewife 

-3 to 10 inches in length.

-Has a silvery, blue-green metallic luster to its scales

-Large black spot behind its gills

-Its lower jaw extends beyond upper jaw.

-Underside of its belly has a distinct serrated edge where scales from each side of the body meet and overlap.

Often used as bait by anglers, alewife were introduced to Lake Erie 1931, Lake Huron in 1933, Lake Michigan in 1949, and Lake Superior in 1954. Alewives are thought to have spread to the Great Lakes through surrounding canals, lakes, and streams between the lakes. In 1997, the first alewife was found in Vermont. After the initial spotting in southern Vermont, they were also found in Missisquoi Bay in 2003 and eventually in the main lake in 2005.

 photo from USGS: http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=490

Alewife threaten the native species of Lake Champlain by altering zooplankton communities, competing with other fish for food, and feeding on native fish eggs and larvae. They also pose a threat to native fish populations such as Lake Trout and Atlantic salmon as the alewife do not provide them with vitamin B like their native prey does, resulting in reproductive failure.   

In 2008, widespread alewife die-offs occurred in Lake Champlain, confirming that large numbers are now present. Although the long-term impacts of alewives on the Lake Champlain ecosystem are not yet fully understood, biologists are concerned this invasive species will pose a major threat to native forage and game fish populations. 

Die-offs occur because alewives are sensitive to temperature change, experience increased stressed levels when spawning, and lack a food source in some winter months.  

2008 Lake Champlain Alewife Die-Off

University of Wisconsin Sea Grant Institute: http://www.seagrant.wisc.edu/Home/Topics/FishandFisheries/Details.aspx?PostID=362

Norah Carlos

Lake Champlain Basin Program. Aquatic Nuisance Species in Lake Champlain & the Basin. 2011.

http://www.lcbp.org/nuissum.htm#alewife
Marsden, Ellen. "Lake Champlain Alewife Impacts; February 16, 2006 Workshop Summary."

http://www.lcbp.org/PDFs/Alewife_Impacts_2006workshopsummary.pdf
Vermont Agency of Natural Resources. Watershed Management Division. "Alewife." 2003.

http://www.anr.state.vt.us/dec/waterq/lakes/htm/ans/lp_alewife.htm
University of Wisconsin Sea Grant Institute. "What causes alewives to die off in great numbers at certain times of the year?" 2011.

http://www.seagrant.wisc.edu/Home/Topics/FishandFisheries/Details.aspx?PostID=362

Eurasian Watermilfoil in Vermont

         Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) is an aquatic invasive species that is quickly becoming a serious problem in Vermont lakes. Originating from Europe, Asia, and northern Africa, milfoil is most commonly found in shallow bays and along the shoreline of lakes.

Washington Department of Ecology,  2011

            Milfoil is a perennial, and is known for both growing and spreading quickly. It has the ability to spread so rapidly because any fragment that breaks from the parent plant has the capability of starting a whole new growth. This fragmentation occurs naturally from wind and waves, and through recreational activities like swimming and boating. In Vermont, Eurasian watermilfoil is spreading through lakes primarily due to human recreational activities. Pieces cling to boats, trailers, and other equipment and are transferred to other aquatic ecosystems. Actually, it is illegal to transport Eurasian watermilfoil to or from any Vermont surface water.

            Milfoil has a profound impact on an ecosystem largely because of the way it forms into dense mats of vegetation on the surface of the water. These mats block the light necessary for other native species to survive, and reduce the available spawning grounds for fish. Additionally, the presence of milfoil causes secondary effects like increased sedimentation, a decrease in oxygen levels, and increased mosquito activity in an area. 

                                                                                  CWMA, 2010

            Once milfoil has found it’s way into a lake, there is no known, safe way to eradicate it. Some success has been found using aquatic and non-aquatic herbicides, but little is known about their long-term effects on an ecosystem. Other control methods include harvesting, underwater roto-tilling, diver hand pulling, or diver dredging. These controls are not completely effective because of the milfoils characteristic ability to reproduce by fragmentation. New investigative research is being conducted on biological controls, like milfoil weevils and introduction of certain types of carp. 

                                                                                      Franz, 2011

Article: Weevils as a Biological Control

           Recent studies have shown that a native, herbivorous weevil may have a significant role in causing the decline of Eurasian watermilfoil in Vermont. Because Eurasian watermilfoil is such a hazard to aquatic ecosystems, and there are no proven eradication methods, the possibility of weevils as a natural biological control is particularly interesting. Past studies have shown that watermilfoil has declined in 24 of the 37 Vermont lakes where weevils are naturally occurring. This non-random pattern of decline supports the theory that the weevils are acting as a biological control. Unfortunately, despite this promising correlation, there is no concrete evidence to support the effectiveness of weevils on milfoil.

            Research is still being conducted, in hopes that the North American Weevil will become a reliable future control for Vermont lakes infested with Eurasian watermilfoil. Work is also being done to make sure that during these trial periods weevils from other states are not being introduced into the Vermont ecosystems, possibly bringing parasites and diseases that would harm native populations. 

By Meagan Murray

   Joakim P. Hansen, Josefin Sagerman, Sofia A. Wikström. (2010) Effects of plant morphology on small-scale distribution of invertebrates. Marine Biology157:10, 2143-2155
   Holm, L. G. (1970) Aquatic Weeds. Tropical Pest Management 16(4)
   Shearer, Judy F. (1994) Potential Role of Plant Pathogens in Declines of Submersed Macrophytes. Lake and Reservoir Management 10(1)

House Sparrows in Vermont

            The House Sparrow (Passer domesticus), otherwise referred to as the English Sparrow, was introduced into North America from Europe during the mid 1800’s. The now problematic invasive species was specifically introduced into the Vermont ecosystem between 1874 and 1876, in St. Johnsbury.            

            The Sparrows were originally introduced into the United States because of their reputation for eradicating harmful insects, as well as providing familiar wildlife for the European settlers. In the past 200 years, House Sparrows have become some of the most abundant songbirds in North America, establishing themselves in 48 states.

RSPB, 2012

            House Sparrows quickly adapted to New England, largely due to certain characteristics that allow their populations to thrive.  House Sparrows grow and reproduce rapidly, and average approximately 20 chicks per season. They also adapt easily to different conditions, eating a wide range of foods and nesting in many different locations. They are aggressive competitors, adding an unnatural stress to the lives of many native songbirds.  The Europeans who introduced the sparrows into the United States could not have forseen the effect that these birds would have on other native species, because songbirds like the Eastern Bluebird aren’t found in Europe. House sparrows begin nesting in late winter and early spring, beating other native migratory birds to nesting sites. They are also extremely intelligent and territorial, attacking nearby nesters, killing hatchlings, and destroying eggs.

Vermont Center For Ecostudies,  2007
*Green represents confirmed sparrow populations

            The North American Bluebird Society has a long list of preventative and aggressive control methods. Preventatively, the type of box, the location, and keeping the bird box plugged until native songbird nesting times have all been proven to reduce the numbers of Sparrows within an area. If the sparrows are already living at a nesting site, regular monitoring and the removal of nesting material will prevent them from hatching a brood, but the male will continue to guard the site from any other species fiercely. Many birders feel that trapping, and then exterminating the sparrows in a quick, humane way is the proper way to control the invasive species. Relocating the bird is just relocating the problem, and provides little help.

            On a positive note, House Sparrow populations are thought to have decreased by almost 9% in the past few years in Vermont, largely because of the decline in the number of active farms and the reforestation of fields, which decreases the grain availability and ideal nesting sites. 

                                             Wyatt, 2004

Article: House Sparrow Population Must Be Managed

            Bird enthusiasts throughout New England are always workings towards the management of House Sparrow populations. House sparrows are one of the most recognizable songbirds in the country, but are also intense competitors and extremely aggressive towards other birds, often native species. The house sparrow is known for pecking other birds to death, destroying eggs, and then taking over the preferential nesting site. If you decide to put up bluebird boxes in your yard, they must be monitored carefully. Many say that the building bluebird boxes, and then leaving them unattended causes more harm than help, as they end up completely occupied by sparrows. There are many ways to deter house sparrows, from using nesting boxes or feeders, including the actual physical extermination of the bird.

By Meagan Murray

Pimentel D., Zuniga R., Morrison D.

Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States

(2005) Ecological Economics, 52 (3 SPEC. ISS.), pp. 273-288.

           Richard F. Johnston and Robert K. Selander

           Evolution , Vol. 25, No. 1 (Mar., 1971), pp. 1-28